Dr. Thomas Reinhold

@incollection{reinhold_verification_2024,
address = {Wiesbaden, Germany},
title = {Verification in {Cyberspace}},
url = {https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-658-44810-3_11},
abstract = {Verification is one of the pillars of arms control and non-proliferation treaties as well as an important part of confidence building measures. It defines practical measures that enable treaty members to check the treaty compliance by observing, counting or moni-toring specific actions and their accordance with the respective rules. In contrast to his-torical examples of former military technologies, cyberspace features some unique char-acteristics making it hard to apply established measures. The chapter describes these peculiarities and assesses distinguishing problems compared to selected verification measures for nuclear, biological and chemicals weapons technology. Yet, cyberspace is a human-made domain and adjusting its technical setting, rules and principles may help to reduce the threat of ongoing militarisation. Offering some alternatives, the chapter elaborates on suitable and measurable parameters for this domain and presents potential-ly useful verification approaches.},
booktitle = {Information {Technology} for {Peace} and {Security} - {IT} {Applications} and {Infrastructures} in {Conflicts}, {Crises}, {War}, and {Peace}},
publisher = {Springer Vieweg},
author = {Reinhold, Thomas and Reuter, Christian},
editor = {Reuter, Christian},
year = {2024},
note = {https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-44810-3\_11},
keywords = {Peace, Security, Projekt-CNTR},
}

@incollection{reinhold_cyber_2024,
address = {Wiesbaden, Germany},
title = {From {Cyber} {War} to {Cyber} {Peace}},
url = {https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-658-44810-3_7},
abstract = {The encompassing trend of digitalisation and widespread dependencies on IT systems triggers adjustments also in the military forces. Besides necessary enhancements of IT security and defensive measures for cyberspace, a growing number of states are estab-lishing offensive military capabilities for this domain. Looking at historical develop-ments and transformations due to advancements in military technologies, the chapter discusses the political progress made and tools developed since. Both of these have con-tributed to handling challenges and confining threats to international security. With this background, the text assesses a possible application of these efforts to developments concerning cyberspace, as well as obstacles that need to be tackled for it to be success-ful. The chapter points out political advancements already in progress, the role of social initiatives, such as the cyber peace campaign of the Forum of Computer Scientists for Peace and Societal Responsibility (FifF), as well as potential consequences of the rising probability of cyber war as opposed to the prospects of cyber peace.},
booktitle = {Information {Technology} for {Peace} and {Security} - {IT} {Applications} and {Infrastructures} in {Conflicts}, {Crises}, {War}, and {Peace}},
publisher = {Springer Vieweg},
author = {Reinhold, Thomas and Reuter, Christian},
editor = {Reuter, Christian},
year = {2024},
note = {https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-44810-3\_7},
keywords = {Peace, Security, Projekt-CROSSING, Cyberwar, Projekt-CNTR},
}

@incollection{reuter_arms_2024,
address = {Wiesbaden},
title = {Arms {Control} and its {Applicability} to {Cyberspace}},
url = {https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-658-44810-3_10},
abstract = {Arms control aims at preventing conflicts and fostering stability in inter-state relations by either reducing the probability of usage of a specific weapon or regulating its use and thus, reducing the costs of armament. Several approaches to arms control exist: limiting or reducing numbers of weapons and armed forces, disarmament (“down to zero”) or prohibiting certain weapons. To illustrate these further, this chapter elaborates on the necessity of arms control and presents some historical examples, including an overview of existing measures of arms control. Extrapolating from these, the general architecture of arms control regimes and the complex issue of establishing and verifying compliance with agreements will be discussed, not least with respect to cyberspace. Building on these theoretical considerations, the chapter presents important treaties and first approaches, including the Wassenaar Arrangement, the recommendations of the OSCE, and the UN GGE 2015.},
language = {en},
booktitle = {Information {Technology} for {Peace} and {Security} - {IT} {Applications} and {Infrastructures} in {Conflicts}, {Crises}, {War}, and {Peace}},
publisher = {Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden},
author = {Reinhold, Thomas and Reuter, Christian},
editor = {Reuter, Christian},
year = {2024},
note = {https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-44810-3\_10},
keywords = {Peace, Projekt-CNTR},
}

@book{reinhold_towards_2024,
address = {Wiesbaden, Germany},
title = {Towards a {Peaceful} {Development} of {Cyberspace}: {Challenges} and {Technical} {Measures} for the {De}-{Escalation} of {State}-{Led} {Cyberconflicts} and {Arms} {Control} of {Cyberweapons}},
isbn = {978-3-658-43950-7},
url = {https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-658-43951-4},
abstract = {Cyberspace, already a few decades old, has become a matter of course for most of us, part of our everyday life. At the same time, this space and the global infrastructure behind it are essential for our civilizations, the economy and administration, and thus an essential expression and lifeline of a globalized world. However, these developments also create vulnerabilities and thus, cyberspace is increasingly developing into an intelligence and military operational area – for the defense and security of states but also as a component of offensive military planning, visible in the creation of military cyber-departments and the integration of cyberspace into states' security and defense strategies. In order to contain and regulate the conflict and escalation potential of technology used by military forces, over the last decades, a complex tool set of transparency, de-escalation and arms control measures has been developed and proof-tested. Unfortunately, many of these established measures do not work for cyberspace due to its specific technical characteristics. Even more, the concept of what constitutes a weapon – an essential requirement for regulation – starts to blur for this domain. Against this background, this thesis aims to answer how measures for the de-escalation of state-led conflicts in cyberspace and arms control of cyberweapons can be developed. In order to answer this question, the dissertation takes a specifically technical perspective on these problems and the underlying political challenges of state behavior and international humanitarian law in cyberspace to identify starting points for technical measures of transparency, arms control and verification. Based on this approach of adopting already existing technical measures from other fields of computer science, the thesis will provide proof of concepts approaches for some mentioned challenges like a classification system for cyberweapons that is based on technical measurable features, an approach for the mutual reduction of vulnerability stockpiles and an approach to plausibly assure the non-involvement in a cyberconflict as a measure for de-escalation. All these initial approaches and the questions of how and by which measures arms control and conflict reduction can work for cyberspace are still quite new and subject to not too many debates. Indeed, the approach of deliberately self-restricting the capabilities of technology in order to serve a bigger goal, like the reduction of its destructive usage, is yet not very common for the engineering thinking of computer science. Therefore, this dissertation also aims to provide some impulses regarding the responsibility and creative options of computer science with a view to the peaceful development and use of cyberspace.},
publisher = {Springer Vieweg},
author = {Reinhold, Thomas},
year = {2024},
doi = {10.1007/978-3-658-43951-4},
keywords = {Peace, Security, Projekt-CROSSING, Projekt-ATHENE, DissPublisher},
}

@incollection{reinhold_artificial_2024,
address = {Wiesbaden},
title = {Artificial {Intelligence} and {Cyber} {Weapons}},
isbn = {978-3-658-44810-3},
url = {https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-658-44810-3_16},
abstract = {As cyber weapons and artificial intelligence technologies share the same technological foundation of bits and bytes, there is a strong trend of connecting both, thus addressing the imminent challenge of cyber weapons of processing, filtering and aggregating huge amounts of digital data in real time into decisions and actions. This chapter (This chapter is based on the chapter “Cyber Weapons and Artificial Intelligence: Impact, Influence and the Challenges for Arms Control” by Thomas Reinhold and Christian Reuter, published in 2022 in “Armament, Arms Control and Artificial Intelligence: The Janus-faced Nature of Machine Learning in the Military Realm” by Thomas Reinhold and Niklas Schörnig (Editors).) will analyse this development and highlight the increasing tendency towards artificial intelligence enabled autonomous decisions in defensive as well as offensive cyber weapons, the arising additional challenges for attributing cyber attacks and the problems for developing arms control measures for this technology fusion. However, the chapter also ventures an outlook how artificial intelligence methods can help to mitigate these challenges if applied for arms control measures itself.},
booktitle = {Information {Technology} for {Peace} and {Security}: {IT} {Applications} and {Infrastructures} in {Conflicts}, {Crises}, {War}, and {Peace}},
publisher = {Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden},
author = {Reinhold, Thomas and Reuter, Christian},
editor = {Reuter, Christian},
year = {2024},
doi = {10.1007/978-3-658-44810-3_16},
pages = {335--349},
}

@incollection{reuter_outlook_2024,
address = {Wiesbaden, Germany},
title = {Outlook: {The} {Future} of {IT} in {Peace} and {Security}},
url = {https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-658-44810-3_22},
abstract = {Not only today, but also in the future information technology and the advances in the field of computer science will have a high relevance for peace and security. Naturally, a textbook like this can only cover a selective part of research and a certain point in time. Nonetheless, it can be attempted to identify trends, challenges and venture an outlook into the future. That is exactly what we want to achieve in this chapter: To predict fu-ture developments and try to classify them correctly. These considerations were made both by the editor and the authors involved alike. Therefore, an outlook based on fun-damentals, cyber conflicts and war, cyber peace, cyber arms control, infrastructures as well as social interaction is given.},
booktitle = {Information {Technology} for {Peace} and {Security} - {IT} {Applications} and {Infrastructures} in {Conflicts}, {Crises}, {War}, and {Peace}},
publisher = {Springer Vieweg},
author = {Reuter, Christian and Aal, Konstantin and Altmann, Jürgen and Bernhardt, Ute and Denker, Kai and Franken, Jonas and Gonsior, Anja-Liisa and Guntrum, Laura and Herrmann, Dominik and Hollick, Matthias and Katzenbeisser, Stefan and Kaufhold, Marc-André and Reinhold, Thomas and Riebe, Thea and Ruhmann, Ingo and Saalbach, Klaus-Peter and Schirch, Lisa and Schmid, Stefka and Schörnig, Niklas and Sunyaev, Ali and Wulf, Volker},
editor = {Reuter, Christian},
year = {2024},
note = {https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-44810-3\_22},
keywords = {Peace, Security, Projekt-CROSSING},
}

@incollection{reuter_teaching_2024,
address = {Wiesbaden, Germany},
title = {Teaching {Peace} {Informatics}: {Reflections} from {Lectures} and {Exercises}},
url = {https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-658-44810-3_21},
abstract = {Conflicts in cyberspace do not longer constitute a fictional scenario of the future. To gain a better understanding of how such conflicts are carried out, interdisciplinary research and teaching building on both computer science and peace and security studies is indispensable. Even though numerous established courses and textbooks exist in some disciplines, this does not apply to their intersection. This chapter (This chapter has been published as a paper (in German): Reuter et al. (2022)) reflects on the introduction of the interdisciplinary course “Information Technology for Peace and Security” for students of Computer Science, IT Security and Information Systems at the Technical University of Darmstadt and Peace and Conflict Research at the TU Darmstadt in cooperation with Goethe University Frankfurt. The challenges and solutions of interdisciplinary teaching are presented while the importance of this type of teaching is assessed.},
booktitle = {Information {Technology} for {Peace} and {Security} - {IT} {Applications} and {Infrastructures} in {Conflicts}, {Crises}, {War}, and {Peace}},
publisher = {Springer Vieweg},
author = {Reuter, Christian and Riebe, Thea and Haunschild, Jasmin and Reinhold, Thomas and Schmid, Stefka},
editor = {Reuter, Christian},
year = {2024},
note = {https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-44810-3\_21},
keywords = {Peace, Security, Infrastructure},
}

@techreport{reuter_informatik_2024,
address = {FIfF-Kommunikation},
title = {Informatik für den {Frieden}: {Perspektive} von {PEASEC} zu 40 {Jahren} {FIfF}},
url = {https://peasec.de/paper/2024/2024_Reuteretal_InformatikFuerFrieden_fiff.pdf},
abstract = {Fortschritte in Wissenschaft und Technik, besonders der Informatik, spielen im Kontext von Frieden und Sicherheit eine essenzielle Rolle. Der Lehrstuhl Wissenschaft und Technik für Frieden und Sicherheit (PEASEC) an der Technischen Universität Darmstadt verbindet Informatik mit Friedens-, Konflikt- und Sicherheitsforschung.},
author = {Reuter, Christian and Franken, Jonas and Reinhold, Thomas and Kuehn, Philipp and Kaufhold, Marc-André and Riebe, Thea and Hartwig, Katrin and Biselli, Tom and Schmid, Stefka and Guntrum, Laura and Haesler, Steffen},
year = {2024},
keywords = {Peace, Security},
}

@techreport{gonsior_friedensinformatik_2023,
title = {Friedensinformatik: heute und morgen},
url = {https://peasec.de/paper/2023/2023_GonsiorRiebeSchmidReinholdReuter_FriedensinformatikHeuteMorgen_WundF.pdf},
abstract = {Fortschritte in Wissenschaft und Technologie spielen eine entscheidende Rolle im Zusammenhang mit Frieden, Konflikt und Sicherheit (Reuter 2019). Insbesondere die Rolle der Informatik in der Friedens- und Konfliktforschung hat sich durch die Digitalisierung der Gesellschaft gewandelt. Die Bewältigung der damit verbundenen Herausforderungen für Frieden und Sicherheit durch die akademische Forschung erfordert die Anwendung und Etablierung interdisziplinärer Ansätze (Reuter et al. 2020). An dieser Stelle kann die naturwissenschaftlich-technische Friedens und Konfliktforschung entscheidende Beiträge leisten, um aktuelle Themen und damit verbundene Problemstellungen aus verschiedenen disziplinären Perspektiven zu analysieren und zu bewerten. So müssen beispielsweise Fragen im Kontext von Cyberangriffen oder Cyberwaffen sowohl aus Perspektive der Informatik als auf der Politikwissenschaft betrachtet werden (Reuter et al. 2020).},
author = {Gonsior, Anja-Liisa and Riebe, Thea and Schmid, Stefka and Reinhold, Thomas and Reuter, Christian},
year = {2023},
keywords = {Peace},
pages = {34--37},
}

@article{reinhold_challenges_2023,
title = {Challenges for {Cyber} {Arms} {Control}: {A} {Qualitative} {Expert} {Interview} {Study}},
volume = {16},
issn = {1866-2196},
url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s12399-023-00960-w},
doi = {10.1007/s12399-023-00960-w},
abstract = {The militarization of cyberspace has been a topic in international fora and scientific debates for several years. However, the development of applicable, and verifiable arms control measures that can effectively reduce the risk of military escalations in cyberspace is still hindered by the characteristics of this domain. The article analyses challenges and obstacles of dual-use, proliferation, constant technological progress, the importance of the private sector, difficulties in defining and verifying weapons and difficulties in attributing attacks.},
number = {3},
journal = {Zeitschrift für Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik (ZfAS)},
author = {Reinhold, Thomas and Pleil, Helene and Reuter, Christian},
month = aug,
year = {2023},
keywords = {Peace, Security, Projekt-ATHENE-SecUrban, Projekt-CROSSING},
pages = {289--310},
}

@article{reinhold_preventing_2023,
title = {Preventing the escalation of cyber conflicts: towards an approach to plausibly assure the non-involvement in a cyberattack},
volume = {12},
issn = {2524-6976},
url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s42597-023-00099-7},
doi = {10.1007/s42597-023-00099-7},
abstract = {While cyberspace has evolved into a commonly shared space vital to our individual lives and societies, malicious cyber activities by state actors as part of espionage operations, regarding defense strategies, or as part of traditional conflicts have strongly increased. In contrast, attributing the origin of such activities remains problematic. The ambiguity of digital data raises the problem of misinterpreting available information, increasing the risk of misinformed reactions and conflict escalation. In order to reduce this risk, this paper proposes a transparency system based on technologies which usually already exist for IT security measures that an accused actor in a specific incident can use to provide credible information which plausibly assures his non-involvement. The paper analyses the technical requirements, presents the technical concept and discusses the necessary adjustments to existing IT networks for its implementation. Intended as a measure for conflict de-escalation, the paper further discusses the limitations of this approach, especially with regard to technical limits as well as the political motivation and behavior of states.},
number = {1},
journal = {Zeitschrift für Friedens- und Konfliktforschung (ZeFKo)},
author = {Reinhold, Thomas and Reuter, Christian},
month = apr,
year = {2023},
keywords = {Peace, Security, Projekt-ATHENE-SecUrban, Projekt-CROSSING},
pages = {31--58},
}

@book{reinhold_towards_2023,
address = {Darmstadt, Germany},
title = {Towards a {Peaceful} {Development} of {Cyberspace}: {Challenges} and {Technical} {Measures} for the {De}-{Escalation} of {State}-{Led} {Cyberconflicts} and {Arms} {Control} of {Cyberweapons}},
url = {https://tuprints.ulb.tu-darmstadt.de/24559/},
abstract = {Cyberspace, already a few decades old, has become a matter of course for most of us, part of our everyday life. At the same time, this space and the global infrastructure behind it are essential for our civilizations, the economy and administration, and thus an essential expression and lifeline of a globalized world. However, these developments also create vulnerabilities and thus, cyberspace is increasingly developing into an intelligence and military operational area – for the defense and security of states but also as a component of offensive military planning, visible in the creation of military cyber-departments and the integration of cyberspace into states' security and defense strategies. In order to contain and regulate the conflict and escalation potential of technology used by military forces, over the last decades, a complex tool set of transparency, de-escalation and arms control measures has been developed and proof-tested. Unfortunately, many of these established measures do not work for cyberspace due to its specific technical characteristics. Even more, the concept of what constitutes a weapon – an essential requirement for regulation – starts to blur for this domain. Against this background, this thesis aims to answer how measures for the de-escalation of state-led conflicts in cyberspace and arms control of cyberweapons can be developed. In order to answer this question, the dissertation takes a specifically technical perspective on these problems and the underlying political challenges of state behavior and international humanitarian law in cyberspace to identify starting points for technical measures of transparency, arms control and verification. Based on this approach of adopting already existing technical measures from other fields of computer science, the thesis will provide proof of concepts approaches for some mentioned challenges like a classification system for cyberweapons that is based on technical measurable features, an approach for the mutual reduction of vulnerability stockpiles and an approach to plausibly assure the non-involvement in a cyberconflict as a measure for de-escalation. All these initial approaches and the questions of how and by which measures arms control and conflict reduction can work for cyberspace are still quite new and subject to not too many debates. Indeed, the approach of deliberately self-restricting the capabilities of technology in order to serve a bigger goal, like the reduction of its destructive usage, is yet not very common for the engineering thinking of computer science. Therefore, this dissertation also aims to provide some impulses regarding the responsibility and creative options of computer science with a view to the peaceful development and use of cyberspace.},
publisher = {Dissertation (Dr. rer. nat.), Department of Computer Science, Technische Universität Darmstadt},
author = {Reinhold, Thomas},
year = {2023},
doi = {10.26083/tuprints-00024559},
keywords = {Peace, Security, Projekt-CROSSING, Projekt-ATHENE, Dissertation},
}

@article{reinhold_extrust_2023,
title = {{ExTRUST}: {Reducing} {Exploit} {Stockpiles} {With} a {Privacy}-{Preserving} {Depletion} {Systems} for {Inter}-{State} {Relationships}},
volume = {4},
url = {https://peasec.de/paper/2023/2023_ReinholdKuehnGuentherSchneiderReuter_ExTrust-ehem-BlockED_TTaS.pdf},
doi = {10.1109/TTS.2023.3280356},
abstract = {Cyberspace is a fragile construct threatened by malicious cyber operations of different actors, with vulnerabilities in IT hardware and software forming the basis for such activities, thus also posing a threat to global IT security. Advancements in the field of artificial intelligence accelerate this development, either with artificial intelligence enabled cyber weapons, automated cyber defense measures, or artificial intelligence-based threat and vulnerability detection. Especially state actors, with their long-term strategic security interests, often stockpile such knowledge of vulnerabilities and exploits to enable their military or intelligence service cyberspace operations. While treaties and regulations to limit these developments and to enhance global IT security by disclosing vulnerabilities are currently being discussed on the international level, these efforts are hindered by state concerns about the disclosure of unique knowledge and about giving up tactical advantages. This leads to a situation where multiple states are likely to stockpile at least some identical exploits, with technical measures to enable a depletion process for these stockpiles that preserve state secrecy interests and consider the special constraints of interacting states as well as the requirements within such environments being non-existent. This paper proposes such a privacy-preserving approach that allows multiple state parties to privately compare their stock of vulnerabilities and exploits to check for items that occur in multiple stockpiles without revealing them so that their disclosure can be considered. We call our system ExTRUST and show that it is scalable and can withstand several attack scenarios. Beyond the intergovernmental setting, ExTRUST can also be used for other zero-trust use cases, such as bug-bounty programs.},
number = {2},
journal = {IEEE Transactions on Technology and Society},
author = {Reinhold, Thomas and Kuehn, Philipp and Günther, Daniel and Schneider, Thomas and Reuter, Christian},
year = {2023},
keywords = {Peace, Student, Projekt-ATHENE-SecUrban, Projekt-CROSSING, A-Paper, Selected, Cyberwar, AuswahlPeace, Projekt-GRKPrivacy},
pages = {158--170},
}

@article{reinhold_zur_2023,
title = {Zur {Debatte} über die {Einhegung} eines {Cyberwars}: {Analyse} militärischer {Cyberaktivitäten} im {Krieg} {Russlands} gegen die {Ukraine}},
issn = {2524-6976},
url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s42597-023-00094-y},
doi = {10.1007/s42597-023-00094-y},
abstract = {Der Überfall Russlands auf die Ukraine und der sich anschließende Krieg haben neben vielen anderen sicherheitspolitischen Gewissheiten auch zum ersten Mal die Rolle des Cyberspace in einem offenen Angriffskrieg demonstriert und bedenkenswerte Entwicklungen offenbart. Ziel dieses Beitrags ist es, die militärischen Aktivitäten im Cyberspace im Rahmen des Krieges Russlands gegen die Ukraine auf der Grundlage der öffentlich verfügbaren Informationen zu analysieren und im Hinblick auf die bis dato gängigen Vorstellungen eines Cyberwars zu bewerten. Darauf aufbauend werden mögliche Schlussfolgerungen betrachtet, zum einen mit Blick auf die zukünftige Bedeutung von Cyberaktivitäten für Russland, hinsichtlich des generellen militärischen Einsatzes von Cyberwirkmitteln und dessen weiterer Entwicklung, und in Bezug auf zukünftige internationale Debatten zur Einhegung von Cyberwars und des schädigenden Einsatzes von Cyberwirkmitteln.},
journal = {Zeitschrift für Friedens- und Konfliktforschung (ZeFKo)},
author = {Reinhold, Thomas and Reuter, Christian},
month = mar,
year = {2023},
keywords = {Peace, Projekt-TraCe, Security, Projekt-ATHENE-SecUrban},
}

@article{franken_digital_2022,
title = {The {Digital} {Divide} in {State} {Vulnerability} to {Submarine} {Communications} {Cable} {Failure}},
volume = {38},
url = {https://peasec.de/paper/2022/2022_FrankenReinholdReichertReuter_DigitalDivideStateVulnerabilitySubmarineCommunicationsCable_IJCIP.pdf},
doi = {10.1016/j.ijcip.2022.100522},
abstract = {The backbone network of submarine communication cables (SCC) carries 98\% of international internet traffic. Coastal and island states strongly depend on this physical internet infrastructure to provide internet connectivity. Although about 100 SCC breakdowns of human or natural origin occur at yearly average, a literature review reveals that there is no approach to assess individual state vulnerability to SCC failure in global comparison. In this article, the global SCC network is modeled based on publicly available data. Besides the analysis of the global network properties, a focus is put on remaining bandwidth capacities in three different failure scenario simulations of SCC breakdowns. As a result, this study identifies 15 highly vulnerable states and overseas territories, and another 28 territories that are classified as partially vulnerable to SCC failures. Since economic market decisions shape the structure of the SCC network, an uneven distribution of redundancies and the resulting vulnerability of disadvantaged economies can be confirmed. Therefore, the study's findings may contribute to a better assessment of the necessity of preventive protection measures of critical telecommunication infrastructures in states and territories characterized by high and medium vulnerability.},
number = {100522},
journal = {International Journal of Critical Infrastructure Protection (IJCIP)},
author = {Franken, Jonas and Reinhold, Thomas and Reichert, Lilian and Reuter, Christian},
year = {2022},
keywords = {Student, Projekt-AgriRegio, Security, Projekt-ATHENE-SecUrban, A-Paper, Selected, Ranking-ImpactFactor, AuswahlPeace},
pages = {1--15},
}

@techreport{meier_fur_2022,
title = {Für eine umfassende, globale und aktive {Abrüstungs}- und {Rüstungskontrollpolitik}},
url = {https://fourninesecurity.de/2022/11/10/fuer-eine-umfassende-globale-und-aktive-abruestungs-und-ruestungskontrollpolitik},
abstract = {Eine vorausschauende und global ausgerichtete deutsche Rüstungskontrollpolitik hat enorme sicherheitspolitische Potenziale. Denn: Eine aktive Rüstungskontrollpolitik Deutschlands kann helfen, die Gefahren der weltweiten Aufrüstung und regionaler Rüstungs- und Eskalationsdynamiken zu mindern. Rüstungskontrollpolitische Instrumente müssen jede Vereinbarung über das Ende des Kriegs gegen die Ukraine stützen. Vereinbarungen über die Nichtverbreitung von Massenvernichtungswaffen bestimmen Regeln, die den militärischen Missbrauch von dual use-Technologien verhindern können. Abrüstung und Rüstungskontrolle mindern schon jetzt menschliches Leid in anderen Weltregionen. Abrüstung kann dazu beitragen, das vorherrschende und im Krieg gegen die Ukraine zunehmend unberechenbare Abschreckungsparadigma zu überwinden. Eine engagierte Rüstungskontrollpolitik fügt sich dann in die feministische Außenpolitik der Bundesregierung, wenn sie partizipativ und restriktiv angelegt ist und negative Folgen von Aufrüstung und Krieg besonders für Frauen und marginalisierte Gruppen reduziert.
Um diese sicherheitspolitischen Potenziale auszuschöpfen, sollte die Nationale Sicherheitsstrategie Eckpunkte einer eigenständigen deutschen Rüstungskontrollpolitik beschreiben. Drei Prinzipien können eine solche Politik anleiten.},
language = {de},
institution = {49security},
author = {Meier, Oliver and Brzoska, Michael and Ferl, Anna-Katharina and Hach, Sascha and Bayer (2), Markus and Mutschler, Max and Prem, Berenike and Reinhold, Thomas and Schmid, Stefka and Schwarz, Matthias},
year = {2022},
note = {49security},
keywords = {Peace},
}

@incollection{reinhold_arms_2022,
edition = {1},
title = {Arms {Control} for {Artificial} {Intelligence}},
isbn = {978-3-031-11043-6},
url = {https://peasec.de/paper/2022/2022_Reinhold_ ArmsControlforAI_AI-Book.pdf},
abstract = {With military weapon systems getting more and more improved by artificial intelligence and states competing about the leading role in this development, the question arises how arms control measures can be applied to decrease this equipment spiral. The ongoing debates on cyber weapons have already highlighted the problems with controlling or limiting digital technologies, not to mention the dual use problems. While still in an early stage, this chapter develops possible approaches for AI arms control by considering the different life cycle steps of a typical AI enabled system, based on lessons learned from other arms control approaches. It will discuss the different starting points, their arms control potential as well as its limitations to provide a holistic perspective for necessary further develops and debates.},
language = {en},
booktitle = {Armament, {Arms} {Control} and {Artificial} {Intelligence} - {The} {Janus}-faced {Nature} of {Machine} {Learning} in the {Military} {Realm}},
publisher = {Springer},
author = {Reinhold, Thomas},
editor = {Schörnig, Niklas and Reinhold, Thomas},
year = {2022},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-11043-6_15},
keywords = {Peace, Security, Projekt-ATHENE-SecUrban},
pages = {211--226},
}

@incollection{reinhold_cyber_2022,
edition = {1},
title = {Cyber {Weapons} and {Artificial} {Intelligence}: {Impact}, {Influence} and the {Challenges} for {Arms} {Control}},
isbn = {978-3-031-11043-6},
url = {https://peasec.de/paper/2022/2022_ReinholdReuter_CyberWeaponsAIImpactInfluenceChallenges_AI-Book.pdf},
abstract = {As cyber weapons and artificial intelligence technologies share the same technological foundation of bits and bytes, there is a strong trend of connecting both, thus addressing the imminent challenge of cyber weapons of processing, filtering and aggregating huge amounts of digital data in real time into decisions and actions. This chapter will analyze this development and highlight the increasing tendency towards AI enabled autonomous decisions in defensive as well as offensive cyber weapons, the arising additional challenges for attributing cyberattacks and the problems for developing arms control measures for this “technology fusion”. However, the article also ventures an outlook how AI methods can help to mitigate these challenges if applied for arms control measures itself.},
language = {en},
booktitle = {Armament, {Arms} {Control} and {Artificial} {Intelligence} - {The} {Janus}-faced {Nature} of {Machine} {Learning} in the {Military} {Realm}},
publisher = {Springer},
author = {Reinhold, Thomas and Reuter, Christian},
editor = {Schörnig, Niklas and Reinhold, Thomas},
year = {2022},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-11043-6_11},
keywords = {Peace, Security, Projekt-ATHENE-SecUrban},
pages = {145--158},
}

@article{reinhold_book_2022,
title = {Book {Review}: {Artificial} {Intelligence} and {The} {Future} of {Warfare}, {James} {Johnson} (2021)},
url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12399-022-00918-4},
doi = {10.1007/s12399-022-00918-4},
abstract = {Technological and scientific progress, especially the rapid development of information technology (IT), plays a crucial role in peace and security issuesFootnote1. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is one example. AI is a sub-discipline of computer science, dealing with computer systems capable of performing tasks which require human intelligenceFootnote2. According to James Johnson, PhD, Lecturer in Strategic Studies in the Department of Politics \& International Relations at the University of Aberdeen and author of the book Artificial Intelligence and the Future of Warfare, the hype around this has made it easy to overstate the opportunities and challenges posed by the development and deployment of AI in the military sphere. The author argues, that “speculations about super intelligent AI or the threat of superman AI to humanity” are entirely disconnected from today’s capabilities of AI. The book aims to address this problem by deciphering “proven capabilities and applications from mere speculation”, with a strong focus on the challenges AI poses to strategic stability, nuclear deterrence and how AI might influence nuclear weapon systems. The author concludes with implications and policy recommendations on how states could manage the escalatory risks posed by AI.},
journal = {Zeitschrift für Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik (ZfAS)},
author = {Reinhold, Thomas and Reuter, Christian},
year = {2022},
keywords = {Peace, Projekt-ATHENE-SecUrban},
}

@article{reinhold_towards_2022,
title = {Towards a {Cyber} {Weapons} {Assessment} {Model} – {Assessment} of the {Technical} {Features} of {Malicious} {Software}},
volume = {3},
issn = {2637-6415},
url = {https://peasec.de/paper/2021/2021_ReinholdReuter_CyberWeapons_IEEETransactionsTechnologySociety.pdf},
doi = {10.1109/TTS.2021.3131817},
abstract = {The revelation of the Stuxnet malware in 2010 shed light on the presence of state actors that are willing and capable of developing and using highly sophisticated, specialized malicious software for their political interests. These tools -often dubbed cyber weapons -are expected to become the next major advancement in weaponry technology. Besides the threats of offensive cyber operations for civil IT systems due to the interconnected nature of the cyberspace, international regulation of cyber weapons is -among other aspects -hindered by the fact that the military development and the strategic and tactical deployment of cyber weapons differ significantly from other weapons technologies. In order to establish measures of cyber arms related control treaties, it is crucial to identify these particular characteristics. Based on this premise, the article analyzes the current perspectives on cyber weapons, identifying their weaknesses of being either based on assumptions about adversarial actors or being applicable only after the usage of a malicious tool. In contrast to these approaches, the article focuses on the specific functional aspects of malware and presents an indicator-based assessment model based on parameters that can be measured prior to the application of malicious software. This enables the categorization of malicious tools as cyber weapons. Besides this, the article aims to introduce thought-provoking impulses with regard to social responsibility in computer science.},
language = {en},
number = {3},
journal = {IEEE Transactions on Technology and Society},
author = {Reinhold, Thomas and Reuter, Christian},
month = sep,
year = {2022},
keywords = {Peace, Projekt-ATHENE-SecUrban, A-Paper, Ranking-ImpactFactor, Cyberwar, AuswahlPeace},
pages = {226--239},
}

@article{reuter_zur_2022,
title = {Zur {Schnittmenge} von {Informatik} mit {Friedens}- und {Sicherheitsforschung}: {Erfahrungen} aus der interdisziplinären {Lehre} in der {Friedensinformatik}},
volume = {11},
issn = {2524-6976},
url = {https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s42597-022-00078-4.pdf},
doi = {10.1007/s42597-022-00078-4},
abstract = {Interdisziplinäre Forschung und Lehre zwischen Informatik sowie Friedens- und Sicherheitsforschung ist vor dem Hintergrund, dass Konflikte im Cyberspace nicht mehr eine in der Zukunft liegende Fiktion, sondern eine realitätsnahe Möglichkeit darstellen, unabdingbar. Auch wenn zahlreiche etablierte Lehrveranstaltungen und Lehrbücher in der einen oder anderen Disziplin existieren, gilt dies nicht für deren Schnittmenge. Dieser Beitrag reflektiert die Einführung der in Bezug auf Thematik und Hörer*innenschaft interdisziplinären Lehrveranstaltung „Informationstechnologie für Frieden und Sicherheit“ für Studierende der Informatik, IT-Sicherheit und Wirtschaftsinformatik der Technischen Universität Darmstadt, sowie Friedens- und Konfliktforschung der TU Darmstadt in Kooperation mit der Goethe-Universität Frankfurt. Hierbei werden Herausforderungen und Lösungsansätze der interdisziplinären Lehre dargestellt und die Bedeutung dieser Lehre hervorgehoben.},
number = {2},
journal = {Zeitschrift für Friedens- und Konfliktforschung (ZeFKo)},
author = {Reuter, Christian and Riebe, Thea and Haunschild, Jasmin and Reinhold, Thomas and Schmid, Stefka},
month = oct,
year = {2022},
keywords = {Peace, Security},
pages = {129--140},
}

@incollection{schornig_introduction_2022,
edition = {1},
title = {Introduction},
isbn = {978-3-031-11043-6},
url = {http://www.peasec.de/paper/2022/2022_SchoernigReinhold_Intro_AI-Book.pdf},
abstract = {In 1987, Allan Din published the seminal book “Arms and Artificial Intelligence,” in which he argued that the future military use of AI would be a double-edged sword. Warning about control failures and accidental war on one hand, Din also pointed out the potential of AI to enhance arms control. 35 years later, what was a niche technology in Din’s day has since become one of the most influential technologies in both the civilian and military sectors. In addition, AI has evolved from sophisticated yet deterministic expert systems to machine learning algorithms. Today, AI is about to be introduced in almost every branch of the military, with a variety of implications for arms control. This book reflects the work of the individual authors and identifies common themes and areas where AI can be used for the greater good or where its use calls for particular vigilance. It offers an essential primer for interested readers, while also encouraging experts from the arms control community to dig more deeply into the issues.},
language = {en},
booktitle = {Armament, {Arms} {Control} and {Artificial} {Intelligence} - {The} {Janus}-faced {Nature} of {Machine} {Learning} in the {Military} {Realm}},
publisher = {Springer},
author = {Schörnig, Niklas and Reinhold, Thomas},
editor = {Schörnig, Niklas and Reinhold, Thomas},
year = {2022},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-11043-6_1},
keywords = {Peace, Security, Projekt-ATHENE-SecUrban},
pages = {1--9},
}

@book{schornig_armament_2022,
edition = {1},
title = {Armament, {Arms} {Control} and {Artificial} {Intelligence} - {The} {Janus}-faced {Nature} of {Machine} {Learning} in the {Military} {Realm}},
isbn = {978-3-031-11043-6},
url = {https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-11043-6},
abstract = {Looking at a variety of armament sectors, the book examines how Artificial Intelligence (AI) impacts the fields of armament and arms control, how existing arms control measures will be affected by AI, and what new approaches based on AI have been or are currently developed.
The significant increase in computing power, the increasing reliance on software, and the advent of (narrow) AI and deep-learning algorithms all have the potential to lead to disruptive changes for military operations and warfare, rendering many classical arms control instruments less effective, or even useless. On the other hand, AI might lead to completely new arms control approaches, raising the effectiveness and reliability of new verification measures. To provide a common understanding, the book starts by presenting a general introduction to the state of the art in artificial intelligence and arms control, and how the two topics are interrelated. The second part of the book looks at examples from various fields of weapon technology, including weapons of mass destruction (WMD), conventional armament, and emerging technologies. The final section offers a cross-cutting perspective based on the examples presented in the second part.
This volume will appeal to students and scholars of international relations, as well as policy-makers and practitioners interested in a better understanding of peace and security studies in general, and armament and arms control in particular with a strong focus on AI.},
language = {en},
publisher = {Springer},
author = {Schörnig, Niklas and Reinhold, Thomas},
year = {2022},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-11043-6},
keywords = {Peace, Security, Projekt-ATHENE-SecUrban},
}

@techreport{reinhold_zur_2021,
title = {Zur {Rolle} und {Verantwortung} der {Informatik} für die {Friedensforschung} und {Rüstungskontrolle}},
url = {https://peasec.de/paper/2021/2021_Reinhold_RolleVerantwortungInformatikFriedensforschung_FIFF.pdf},
author = {Reinhold, Thomas},
year = {2021},
keywords = {Peace, Security, Cyberwar, Projekt-DualUse},
pages = {47--49},
}

@incollection{reinhold_verfassungs-_2020,
title = {Verfassungs- und völkerrechtliche {Fragen} im militärischen {Cyber}- und {Informationsraum} unter besonderer {Berücksichtigung} des {Parlamentsvorbehalts}, der {Zurechenbarkeit} von {Cyberangriffen} sowie einer möglichen {Anpassung} nationaler und internationaler {Normen}},
url = {https://www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/824622/67fc9db4f856a8445355562500d2a134/stellungnahme-Thomas-Reinhold_15-03-2021-data.pdf},
booktitle = {Deutscher {Bundestag}, {Verteidigungsausschuss}},
publisher = {Deutscher Bundestag, Verteidigungsausschuss},
author = {Reinhold, Thomas},
year = {2020},
keywords = {Peace, Security, Projekt-ATHENE-SecUrban, Cyberwar},
pages = {1--9},
}

@incollection{reinhold_verification_2019,
address = {Wiesbaden, Germany},
title = {Verification in {Cyberspace}},
isbn = {978-3-658-25652-4},
url = {https://www.springer.com/de/book/9783658256517},
abstract = {Verification is one of the pillars of arms control and non-proliferation treaties as well as an important part of confidence building measures. It defines practical measures that enable treaty members to check the treaty compliance by observing, counting or moni-toring specific actions and their accordance with the respective rules. In contrast to his-torical examples of former military technologies, cyberspace features some unique char-acteristics making it hard to apply established measures. The chapter describes these peculiarities and assesses distinguishing problems compared to selected verification measures for nuclear, biological and chemicals weapons technology. Yet, cyberspace is a human-made domain and adjusting its technical setting, rules and principles may help to reduce the threat of ongoing militarisation. Offering some alternatives, the chapter elaborates on suitable and measurable parameters for this domain and presents potential-ly useful verification approaches.},
booktitle = {Information {Technology} for {Peace} and {Security} - {IT} {Applications} and {Infrastructures} in {Conflicts}, {Crises}, {War}, and {Peace}},
publisher = {Springer Vieweg},
author = {Reinhold, Thomas and Reuter, Christian},
editor = {Reuter, Christian},
year = {2019},
doi = {10.1007/978-3-658-25652-4_12},
keywords = {Peace, Security, Projekt-CRISP},
pages = {257--276},
}

@incollection{reinhold_cyber_2019,
address = {Wiesbaden, Germany},
title = {From {Cyber} {War} to {Cyber} {Peace}},
isbn = {978-3-658-25652-4},
url = {https://www.springer.com/de/book/9783658256517},
abstract = {The encompassing trend of digitalisation and widespread dependencies on IT systems triggers adjustments also in the military forces. Besides necessary enhancements of IT security and defensive measures for cyberspace, a growing number of states are estab-lishing offensive military capabilities for this domain. Looking at historical develop-ments and transformations due to advancements in military technologies, the chapter discusses the political progress made and tools developed since. Both of these have con-tributed to handling challenges and confining threats to international security. With this background, the text assesses a possible application of these efforts to developments concerning cyberspace, as well as obstacles that need to be tackled for it to be success-ful. The chapter points out political advancements already in progress, the role of social initiatives, such as the cyber peace campaign of the Forum of Computer Scientists for Peace and Societal Responsibility (FifF), as well as potential consequences of the rising probability of cyber war as opposed to the prospects of cyber peace.},
booktitle = {Information {Technology} for {Peace} and {Security} - {IT} {Applications} and {Infrastructures} in {Conflicts}, {Crises}, {War}, and {Peace}},
publisher = {Springer Vieweg},
author = {Reinhold, Thomas and Reuter, Christian},
editor = {Reuter, Christian},
year = {2019},
doi = {10.1007/978-3-658-25652-4_7},
keywords = {Peace, Security, Projekt-CROSSING, Cyberwar, Projekt-DualUse, Projekt-CRISP},
pages = {139--164},
}

@incollection{reuter_arms_2019,
address = {Wiesbaden},
title = {Arms {Control} and its {Applicability} to {Cyberspace}},
isbn = {978-3-658-25651-7 978-3-658-25652-4},
url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-658-25652-4_10},
abstract = {Arms control aims at preventing conflicts and fostering stability in inter-state relations by either reducing the probability of usage of a specific weapon or regulating its use and thus, reducing the costs of armament. Several approaches to arms control exist: limiting or reducing numbers of weapons and armed forces, disarmament (“down to zero”) or prohibiting certain weapons. To illustrate these further, this chapter elaborates on the necessity of arms control and presents some historical examples, including an overview of existing measures of arms control. Extrapolating from these, the general architecture of arms control regimes and the complex issue of establishing and verifying compliance with agreements will be discussed, not least with respect to cyberspace. Building on these theoretical considerations, the chapter presents important treaties and first approaches, including the Wassenaar Arrangement, the recommendations of the OSCE, and the UN GGE 2015.},
language = {en},
urldate = {2021-05-11},
booktitle = {Information {Technology} for {Peace} and {Security} - {IT} {Applications} and {Infrastructures} in {Conflicts}, {Crises}, {War}, and {Peace}},
publisher = {Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden},
author = {Reinhold, Thomas and Reuter, Christian},
editor = {Reuter, Christian},
year = {2019},
doi = {10.1007/978-3-658-25652-4_10},
pages = {207--231},
}

@incollection{reuter_future_2019,
address = {Wiesbaden, Germany},
title = {The {Future} of {IT} in {Peace} and {Security}},
isbn = {978-3-658-25652-4},
url = {https://www.springer.com/de/book/9783658256517},
abstract = {Not only today, but also in the future information technology and the advances in the field of computer science will have a high relevance for peace and security. Naturally, a textbook like this can only cover a selective part of research and a certain point in time. Nonetheless, it can be attempted to identify trends, challenges and venture an outlook into the future. That is exactly what we want to achieve in this chapter: To predict fu-ture developments and try to classify them correctly. These considerations were made both by the editor and the authors involved alike. Therefore, an outlook based on fun-damentals, cyber conflicts and war, cyber peace, cyber arms control, infrastructures as well as social interaction is given.},
booktitle = {Information {Technology} for {Peace} and {Security} - {IT} {Applications} and {Infrastructures} in {Conflicts}, {Crises}, {War}, and {Peace}},
publisher = {Springer Vieweg},
author = {Reuter, Christian and Aal, Konstantin and Aldehoff, Larissa and Altmann, Jürgen and Buchmann, Johannes and Bernhardt, Ute and Denker, Kai and Herrmann, Dominik and Hollick, Matthias and Katzenbeisser, Stefan and Kaufhold, Marc-André and Nordmann, Alfred and Reinhold, Thomas and Riebe, Thea and Ripper, Annette and Ruhmann, Ingo and Saalbach, Klaus-Peter and Schörnig, Niklas and Sunyaev, Ali and Wulf, Volker},
editor = {Reuter, Christian},
year = {2019},
doi = {10.1007/978-3-658-25652-4_19},
keywords = {Peace, Security, UsableSec, HCI, Projekt-CROSSING, Projekt-CRISP},
pages = {405--413},
}

@incollection{reuter_cyberwar_2019,
title = {Cyberwar zwischen {Fiktion} und {Realität} – technologische {Möglichkeiten}},
isbn = {978-3-658-27713-0},
url = {https://peasec.de/paper/2019/2019_ReuterRiebeAldehoffKaufholdReinhold2019_CyberwarZwischenFiktionUndReal_Cyberwar.pdf},
abstract = {Im Dezember 2017 wurde eine Invasion des deutschen Regierungsnetzwerks entdeckt; dieses vernetzt Bundesministerien und Behörden (vgl. Reinhold 2018a). Die Angreifer nutzten das Intranet der Hochschule des Bundes für öffentliche Verwaltung und der Bundesakademie für öffentliche Verwaltung als Einfallstor. Dieses ist der am wenigsten gesicherte Teil des Systems, da externe Teilnehmerinnen und Teilnehmer auch außerhalb der Einrichtung darauf zugreifen müssen, beispielsweise für Fortbildungen des Auswärtigen Amtes.},
booktitle = {Cyberwar – die {Digitalisierung} der {Kriegsführung}},
publisher = {Springer VS},
author = {Reuter, Christian and Riebe, Thea and Aldehoff, Larissa and Kaufhold, Marc-André and Reinhold, Thomas},
editor = {Werkner, Ines-Jacqueline and Schörnig, Niklas},
year = {2019},
doi = {10.1007/978-3-658-27713-0},
keywords = {Peace, Security, Cyberwar, Projekt-DualUse},
pages = {15--38},
}

@inproceedings{riebe_threat_2019,
address = {Darmstadt, Germany},
title = {Threat {Intelligence} {Application} for {Cyber} {Attribution}},
url = {https://tuprints.ulb.tu-darmstadt.de/id/eprint/9164},
abstract = {Attribution consists of technical, legal and politically defined processes. However, the interna- tional community has not yet defined processes unilaterally, even though the UN GGE has proposed to address the increase of cyber operations. Taking existing threat exchange stand- ards into account, this paper presents an approach to support efforts for more effective attrib- ution by developing a platform with the common open source threat exchange formats STIX and MEAC. Furthermore, the platform is evaluated in terms of usability.},
booktitle = {{SCIENCE} {PEACE} {SECURITY} '19 - {Proceedings} of the {Interdisciplinary} {Conference} on {Technical} {Peace} and {Security} {Research}},
publisher = {TUprints},
author = {Riebe, Thea and Kaufhold, Marc-André and Kumar, Tarun and Reinhold, Thomas and Reuter, Christian},
editor = {Reuter, Christian and Altmann, Jürgen and Göttsche, Malte and Himmel, Mirko},
year = {2019},
keywords = {Peace, Student, Security, Projekt-DualUse},
pages = {56--60},
}

@incollection{herpig_spotting_2018,
title = {Spotting the bear: credible attribution and {Russian} operations in cyberspace},
url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep21140.7},
abstract = {How do we know who is behind a cyberattack? What are the tools and techniques that could help to identify the hackers who have conducted a cyber-operation? And why is credible attribution in the case of cyberattacks carried out or masterminded by Russia so challenging? These are the questions which this chapter aims to address in detail. However, before examining the technical, intelligence and geopolitical aspects of attribution, this chapter will first explain what attribution is and why it is important in the domain of cybersecurity},
urldate = {2023-09-15},
booktitle = {Hacks, {Leaks} and {Disruptions}: {Russian} {Cyber} {Strategies}},
publisher = {European Union Institute for Security Studies (EUISS)},
author = {Herpig, Sven and Reinhold, Thomas},
year = {2018},
pages = {33--42},
}